by
Damien F. Mackey
“I identify Khasekemre-Neferhotep I as the pharaoh from whom Moses demanded Israel’s release. I do so because Petrie found scarabs … of
former kings at Kahun [Illahun]. But the latest scarab he found there
was of Neferhotep, who was apparently the pharaoh ruling when the
Israelite slaves suddenly left Kahun and fled from Egypt in the Exodus”.
Dr. David Down
The dynasty that began the cruel Oppression of Israel, the Twelfth Dynasty (including its various Old Kingdom duplications), faded out while Moses was yet in Midian (Exodus 4:19), its last ruler being a woman who has been triplicated in conventional Egyptian history (as Khentkaus, Nitocris and Sobekneferu(re)). During the course of this dynasty, Egypt advanced technologically. According to N. Grimal (pp. 165-166): “Foreign workers were also flowing into Egypt, bringing with them new techniques and preparing the way for a slow infiltration that would eventually result in ‘Asiatics’ gaining temporary control over the country”.
Gavin Menzies identifies some of these newcomers as Hyksos (The Lost Empire of Atlantis: History's Greatest Mystery Revealed, p. 108):
The Hyksos probably arrived in the late 12th Dynasty (Middle Kingdom) period. They may have come originally as shipbuilders, sailors, soldiers and craftsmen. It’s not difficult to imagine Avaris as the Dubai of its day, with a vast building workforce drafted in from overseas. The pharaohs settled them here deliberately in the late 12th Dynasty, to create a harbour town and perhaps even build ships. But at a later time of political weakness the workmen established their own small but independent kingdom and had to be swatted back. Hyksos artefacts have been found in the Knossos labyrinth. ….
Added to this, the Egyptian rulers had at their disposal a huge slave labour force from the peoples whom they had conquered, Libyans, Nubians, Bedouin, and of course, the Israelites whose own “overseers” were relentlessly pressurised by Egypt’s “slave drivers” (Exodus 5:14).
All the ingredients were there for the land of Egypt to undergo its massive building program. For this was the Pyramid Age.
In the land of Palestine, cities and forts had sprung up during the Early Bronze Age (II-III). Many of these cities will be destroyed, and/or occupied, within half a century, by a new people, the Middle Bronze I (MBI) Israelites of the Exodus.
Biblical archaeology has been badly thrown out due to the mis-identification of the MBI people with the nomadic Hebrews at the time of Abram (Abraham), almost five hundred years earlier.
“Semitic groups” dwelt in ancient Avaris (modern Tel e-Dab’a), the store city built by the Israelite slaves that is named “Rameses” in Exodus 1:11.
That this accords with the biblical account is suggested by various scholars: https://patternsofevidence.com/2016/06/02/new-archeological-discoveries-about-to-hit-overdrive/
The dig site of Tel el-Dab’a is a good example of the effort it takes to uncover just a fraction of a single location. This site is at the location of Rameses, which is mentioned in the Bible as the city the Israelites built during their bondage in Egypt.
Avaris lies under (and is therefore older than) the city of Rameses, and the fact that it was populated mainly by Semitic herdsmen who begin the history of the city as free people living by permission of the Egyptian state uniquely fits the Exodus account of the Israelites early history.
Egyptologist Charles Aling commented on the history of excavations at this important ancient city of Avaris in one of the bonus features on the Collector’s Edition Box Set of Patterns of Evidence. When asked about how much of ancient Avaris had been uncovered, Aling said, “Avaris itself, this is one of the most massive sites in all of the ancient Near Eastern world. And they have excavated there 60 seasons now. (A season lasts about two or three months, they do two seasons a year usually). And Professor Bietak, the excavator, said that that accounts for about 3% of the total site.”
It seems amazing that after digging for more than 30 years, the Austrians have only uncovered about 3% of the city. What other clues will be found as the excavation continues? Dr. Aling also said, “With Egypt, there are huge gaps… We have large gaps in our information.” He stated that most of the surviving material from ancient Egypt remains to be found and guessed that we know about 10-15 % of what there is to be known.
Mansour Boraik, the Director General of Antiquities at Luxor also emphasized that new finds are made every day. He estimates that more than 60% of Egypt’s monuments remain buried underneath the surface.
When speaking about Avaris, Professor John Bimson from Trinity University in Bristol, England, mentioned that many other Semitic sites from the Middle Bronze Age also exist in the area nearby. Bimson noted that, “If we go back to the 18th-19th centuries BC [sic], we’ve got settlements of Semitic groups, or what the Egyptians called Asiatics. We don’t know exactly when they started arriving or exactly when these settlements stopped, because many of these sites have not been fully excavated yet. You’ve got a good many settlements, twenty or more, which would fit the land of Goshen where the Bible says the Israelites were settled.
There are more than 20 Semitic settlements in Egypt’s Nile Delta waiting to be explored.
“The Avaris site of course, no one knew how big that was until excavation began. There’s some hope to investigating with ground penetrating radar like they’re doing with the Rameside section of Avaris. Have you seen the plans they’ve produced of Rameses by ground penetration radar? They’re showing stables and things on a huge scale. ….
Gavin Menzies writes further about the important Avaris (The Lost Empire of Atlantis: History's Greatest Mystery Revealed, 2012, p. 109):
Whatever this city’s name was – through time it had been Avaris, Piramesse or Peru-nefer – it was certainly a major port, bustling over the summer trading season and humming with the activity of many ships. And … the Minoans, or Keftiu, were here in force.
Avaris/Peru-nefer became a crucial military stronghold. The city was the starting point to the overland route to Canaan, the famous ‘Horus Road’ known in the Bible as the ‘Way of the Philistines’ (Exodus 13:17).
Previously Gavin Menzies had written: “Tell el Dab’a, a Middle Kingdom palace on a hill in the Nile Delta … a place that was named Avaris during the Egyptian 13th Dynasty, when it was a crucial trading port dominated by the commercial traders known as the Hyksos”.
Menzies had earlier discussed the island of Thera, which will figure prominently in his book (p. 61): “The island of Thera was, in the Bronze Age, a very important place, the equal of Phaestos [in Crete], Alexandria, Tell el Dab’a, Tyre or Sidon …. many ships”.
My revision has situated the so-called Thirteenth Dynasty as being partly contemporaneous with the Twelfth. We have seen that some Thirteenth Dynasty personages were officials for the rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty.
Now, as the Twelfth Dynasty began to weaken, due to the long reign of Sesostris, followed by the woman ruler, the Thirteenth Dynasty most likely came to the fore.
This situation of weakness late in a dynasty, due to the overly long reign of a particular king, is reflected in the case of Pepi (so-called II) of the Sixth Dynasty, which I believe to be the very same period of weakness as the Twelfth (a woman concluding the dynasty): https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pepi-II
“Pepi II, fifth king of the 6th dynasty (c. 2325–c. 2150 [sic] BCE) of ancient Egypt, during whose lengthy reign the government became weakened because of internal and external troubles. Late Egyptian tradition indicates that Pepi II acceded at the age of six and, in accord with king lists of the New Kingdom (1539–1075 BCE), credits him with a 94-year reign”.
That excessively long reign can be approximately halved.
Despite the fact that: https://pharaoh.se/dynasty-XIII “The true chronology and number of kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty is very difficult to determine as many of the kings' names are only known from fragmentary inscriptions or scarabs.
Furthermore, the placement of many kings listed in this dynasty is very uncertain and disputed among Egyptologists”, several of its rulers were not entirely insignificant. And it may have been these who introduced the chariot (so vital to the Exodus account) to Egypt: https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/chariots/
It is generally considered that the Hyksos introduced the chariot to Egypt. The names commonly ascribed to the component parts of the chariot were semitic and common design motifs were Syrian in origin.
If the story of the exodus is to be taken at face value … and the ancient Egyptians rode chariots when pursuing the fleeing [Israelites], then it would seem that the exodus occurred after the Hyksos incursion.
However, the discovery of horse remains dated to the Thirteenth Dynasty … may suggest that horses were introduced into ancient Egypt at least in some limited sense before the Hyksos occupation. A stela depicts Army Commander Khonsuemwaset, son of Dudimose (an obscure Thirteenth Dynasty King) seated with his wife on a chair with a pair of gloves depicted underneath him may indicate that he was a charioteer. ….
I myself have found it extremely difficult to identify Egypt’s stubborn ruler at the time of the Plagues and the Exodus. A main reason for this was a preconception, only recently rejected, that the “Jannes and Jambres [Mambres]” of 2 Timothy 3:8 were Egyptian rulers, with “Jannes” being Unas (a pretty good name fit at least) – who is appropriately placed in my revised scheme - and that necessitating that “Jambres” or “Mambres” be the stiff-necked king upon whom the Lord rained down the series of Plagues.
I had opted for the name version, “Mambres”, and had settled on Sheshi Maibre (Mambres?) of the Fourteenth Dynasty.
However, with my more recent realisation that Jannes and Jambres (preferable to Mambres) were actually the troublesome Israelite (Reubenite) pair, Dathan and Abiram:
St Paul's “Jannes and Jambres” were a pair of Reubenite brothers
(3) St Paul's "Jannes and Jambres" were a pair of Reubenite brothers
I could free my mind for a different choice.
At this point in time, my preference would be that the hard-hearted ruler of Egypt at the time of the Plagues and Exodus was the Thirteenth Dynasty’s Khasekemre-Neferhotep so-called I, this choice being based on Dr. David Down’s suggestion: https://creation.com/searching-for-moses
There are records of slavery during the reigns of the last rulers of the 12th Dynasty—Sesostris III, Amenemhet III and Sobekneferu (some include an obscure figure known as Amenemhet IV before Sobekneferu). With the death of Sobekneferu the 12th dynasty came to an end. ….
A period of instability followed the demise of the 12th dynasty. Fourteen kings followed each other in rapid succession, the earlier ones probably ruling in the Delta before the 12th dynasty ended. Kings of the 13th dynasty had already started to rule in the north-east delta and, when the 12th dynasty came to an end, they filled the vacuum and took over as the 13th dynasty. (The idea of dynasties was not an Egyptian idea at the time. It was a later invention of Manetho, the Egyptian priest of the 3rd century BC who left a record of the history of Egypt and divided the kings into dynasties.)
The elevation to rulership over all Egypt by these kings resulted in fierce contention among themselves, resulting in a rapid succession of rulers and more or less anarchy in the country.
This only settled down when Neferhotep I took the throne and restored some stability, ruling for 11 years.
I identify Khasekemre-Neferhotep I as the pharaoh from whom Moses demanded Israel’s release. I do so because Petrie found scarabs … of former kings at Kahun [Illahun]. But the latest scarab he found there was of Neferhotep, who was apparently the pharaoh ruling when the Israelite slaves suddenly left Kahun and fled from Egypt in the Exodus.
According to Manetho, he was the last king to rule before the Hyksos occupied Egypt ‘without a battle’. Without a battle? Where was the Egyptian army? It was at the bottom of the Red Sea (Exodus 14:28). Khasekemre-Neferhotep I was probably the pharaoh of the Exodus. His mummy has never been found. ….
Moses had been commissioned by the Lord to return to Egypt and demand from the new ruler, now tentatively identified as Khasekemre-Neferhotep, the release of the children of Israel. Moses almost doesn’t make it (Exodus 4:24-26):
At a lodging place on the way, the LORD met Moses and was about to kill him. But Zipporah took a flint knife, cut off her son’s foreskin and touched Moses’ feet with it. ‘Surely you are a bridegroom of blood to me’, she said. So the LORD let him alone. (At that time she said ‘bridegroom of blood’, referring to circumcision.)
Moses, a type of Jesus Christ who is ‘the Bridegroom of the Bride’ (John 3:29), the Church, will be described by his wife, Zipporah as “a bridegroom of blood to me”.
Jesus Christ is profoundly embedded in the writings of Moses and the Prophets (Luke 24:26): ‘Did not the Messiah have to suffer these things and then enter his glory?’ And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, [Jesus] explained to them what was said in all the Scriptures concerning himself’. For Moses had written of Him (John 5:45-47): ‘Do not think that I will accuse you to the Father. There is one who accuses you:
Moses, on whom you have set your hope. For if you believed Moses, you would believe me; for he wrote of me. But if you do not believe his writings, how will you believe my words?’
Jesus Christ is the I AM, existing before even Abraham (John 8:58).
And Moses wrote of Him, when he recorded about his first spiritual encounter at Mount Sinai (Exodus 3:14): ‘I AM WHO I AM’.
MOSES CONFRONTS PHARAOH
Naturally, the new ruler of Egypt was not going to be impressed by the demands of two foreigners, Moses and Aaron, for the release of a large proportion of his valuable manpower (Exodus 5:1-2):
Afterward Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and said, “This is what the LORD, the God of Israel, says: ‘Let my people go, so that they may hold a festival to me in the wilderness’.”
Pharaoh said, ‘Who is the LORD, that I should obey him and let Israel go? I do not know the LORD and I will not let Israel go’.
To make matters worse, Moses and Aaron would at first manage only to irritate the king, which then made things even tougher for the enslaved Israelites (5:19-21):
The Israelite overseers realized they were in trouble when they were told, ‘You are not to reduce the number of bricks required of you for each day’. When they left Pharaoh, they found Moses and Aaron waiting to meet them, and they said, ‘May the LORD look on you and judge you! You have made us obnoxious to Pharaoh and his officials and have put a sword in their hand to kill us’.
Things, however, were about to change dramatically – in one of the greatest dramas of all history in fact. Moses and Aaron were soon to be greatly exalted by the Lord and in the eyes of their people (7:1-6):
Then the LORD said to Moses, ‘See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet. You are to say everything I command you, and your brother Aaron is to tell Pharaoh to let the Israelites go out of his country. But I will harden Pharaoh’s heart, and though I multiply my signs and wonders in Egypt, he will not listen to you. Then I will lay my hand on Egypt and with mighty acts of judgment I will bring out my divisions, my people the Israelites. And the Egyptians will know that I am the LORD when I stretch out my hand against Egypt and bring the Israelites out of it’.
Moses and Aaron did just as the LORD commanded them. Moses was eighty years old and Aaron eighty-three when they spoke to Pharaoh.
Moses, the servant of Yahweh, was about to deliver to Egypt the Ten Plagues.
King Solomon tells of the obstinacy of these Egyptians (Wisdom 19:1-4):
God knew before they did what was yet to come: how, after agreeing to send your people away, and in fact sending them away in haste, their enemies would change their minds and pursue them. And so, even as they still held in their arms those whom they mourned and even as they still raised up their laments at the graves of their dead, another thoughtless plan occurred to them.
They decided to pursue those who had fled even after they had agreed to their request to send them away. A fate they fully deserved drew them to this inevitable decision and made them forget about all the things that had so recently happened to them. All this took place so that they might complete the one punishment lacking in their sufferings.
Solomon, no stranger to Egypt as the great Eighteenth Dynasty’s ‘power behind the throne’, Senenmut (or Senmut), also told of the upheaval in Egypt at that time (Wisdom 16:1-10):
Thus they were appropriately punished by similar creatures and tormented by swarms of vermin.
In contrast to this punishment, you did your people a kindness and, to satisfy their sharp appetite, provided quails -- a luscious rarity -- for them to eat.
Thus the Egyptians, at the repulsive sight of the creatures sent against them, were to find that, though they longed for food, they had lost their natural appetite; whereas your own people, after a short privation, were to have a rare relish for their portion.
Inevitable that relentless want should seize on the former oppressors; enough for your people to be shown how their enemies were being tortured.
Even when the fearful rage of wild animals overtook them and they were perishing from the bites of writhing snakes, your retribution did not continue to the end.
Affliction struck them briefly, by way of warning, and they had a saving token to remind them of the commandment of your Law, for whoever turned to it was saved, not by what he looked at, but by you, the Saviour of all.
And by such means you proved to our enemies that you are the one who delivers from every evil; for them, the bites of locusts and flies proved fatal and no remedy could be found to save their lives, since they deserved to be punished by such creatures.
But your children, not even the fangs of poisonous snakes could bring them down; for your mercy came to their help and cured them”.
And he tells of the terrifying Darkness of a nation that had chosen to live in the darkness of sin (17:1-21):
Yes, your judgements are great and impenetrable, which is why uninstructed souls have gone astray.
While the wicked supposed they had a holy nation in their power, they themselves lay prisoners of the dark, in the fetters of long night, confined under their own roofs, banished from eternal providence.
While they thought to remain unnoticed with their secret sins, curtained by dark forgetfulness, they were scattered in fearful dismay, terrified by apparitions.
The hiding place sheltering them could not ward off their fear; terrifying noises echoed round them; and gloomy, grim-faced spectres haunted them.
No fire had power enough to give them light, nor could the brightly blazing stars illuminate that dreadful night.
The only light for them was a great, spontaneous blaze -- a fearful sight to see! And in their terror, once that sight had vanished, they thought what they had seen more terrible than ever.
Their magical illusions were powerless now, and their claims to intelligence were ignominiously confounded; for those who promised to drive out fears and disorders from sick souls were now themselves sick with ludicrous fright.
Even when there was nothing frightful to scare them, the vermin creeping past and the hissing of reptiles filled them with panic; they died convulsed with fright, refusing even to look at empty air, which cannot be eluded anyhow!
Wickedness is confessedly very cowardly, and it condemns itself; under pressure from conscience it always assumes the worst.
Fear, indeed, is nothing other than the failure of the help offered by reason; the less you rely within yourself on this, the more alarming it is not to know the cause of your suffering.
And they, all locked in the same sleep, while that darkness lasted -- which was in fact quite powerless and had issued from the depths of equally powerless Hades-
were now chased by monstrous spectres, now paralysed by the fainting of their souls; for a sudden, unexpected terror had attacked them.
And thus, whoever it might be that fell there stayed clamped to the spot in this prison without bars.
Whether he was ploughman or shepherd, or somebody at work in the desert, he was still overtaken and suffered the inevitable fate, for all had been bound by the one same chain of darkness.
The soughing of the wind, the tuneful noise of birds in the spreading branches, the measured beat of water in its powerful course, the headlong din of rocks cascading down, the unseen course of bounding animals, the roaring of the most savage of wild beasts, the echo rebounding from the clefts in the mountains, all held them paralysed with fear.
For the whole world shone with the light of day and, unhindered, went about its work; over them alone there spread a heavy darkness, image of the dark that would receive them. But heavier than the darkness was the burden they were to themselves.
Today, people laugh at the very idea of the Plagues and the Exodus.
Not so professor Emmanuel Anati, who has realised that the conventional placement of a mild exodus to the Late Bronze Age, supposedly of Ramses II, is hopelessly inaccurate. Thus he has written (The Mountain of God, 1986):
In the last 100 years, many efforts have been invested on finding some hints of the Israelites and their exodus in the Egyptian ancient literature. In the many Egyptian texts that date to the New Kingdom ... there is no mention of the flight from Egypt or the crossing of the "Red Sea".
Not even the general historical and social background correspond. ... If all of this tradition has a minimal basis in historical fact, then it cannot have been totally ignored by the Egyptians. ….
Nor, according to Professor Anati, did they ignore it:
... The relevant texts do not date to the New Kingdom at all, but to the Old Kingdom. In other words ... the archaeological evidence ..., the tribal social structures described in the Bible, the climatic changes and the ancient Egyptian literature all seem to indicate that the events and situations which may have inspired the biblical narrations of Exodus do not date to the thirteenth century BC but ... to the late third millennium [sic] BC.
Professor Anati still accepts the conventional dating of the Old and New Kingdoms.
But this only means that his discoveries are all the more meaningful, because he has not set out to make a chronological statement.
The story of the Exodus, Michael D. Lemonick wrote in “Are the Bible Stories True?” (TIME, Sunday, June 24, 2001), “involves so many miracles” - plagues, the parting of the Red Sea … manna, from heaven, the giving of the Ten Commandments - that critics take it for “pure myth”.
In this regard he referred to Fr. Anthony Axe, Bible lecturer at Jerusalem’s École Biblique, who has claimed that a massive Exodus that led to the drowning of Pharaoh’s army would have reverberated politically and economically throughout the entire region. And, considering that artefacts from as far back as the late Stone Age have turned up in the Sinai, Fr Axe finds it perplexing that - as he thinks - no evidence of the Israelites’ passage has been found. Indeed Fr Axe is right in saying that an event such as the Exodus would have had widespread political and economic ramifications; but because he has been conditioned to thinking according to the Sothic-based time scale, Fr. Axe is unable to see the wood for the trees, so to speak. For, contrary to the conventional view, the Egyptian chronicles do give abundant testimony to a time of catastrophe reminiscent of the Exodus, and archaeology does clearly attest the presence of an invasive people sojourning for a time in the Sinai/Negev deserts.
And the reason why the Israeli archaeologists of the 60’s-80’s “... didn’t find a single piece of evidence backing the Israelites’ supposed 40-year sojourn in the desert”, as M. Broshi, curator emeritus of the Dead Sea Scrolls, claims … is because they were always expecting to find such “evidence” in a New Kingdom context. The error of looking to the New Kingdom for the Exodus scenario has already been pointed out by Anati.
Dr. Cohen, Deputy Director of the Israeli Antiquities Authority, when asked which Egyptian dynasty he considered to be contemporaneous with the Exodus events, nominated the Middle Kingdom’s 12th dynasty. That is very close to the mark.
In this regard he referred to the Ipuwer Papyrus as describing the conditions in Egypt that could be expected as the result of the ten devastating plagues (cf. Exodus 7-12).
Dr. Cohen, of course, is not the first to have suggested the relevance of the 12th dynasty, or of the Ipuwer Papyrus, to the situation of the Israelites in Egypt and the Exodus. Dr. Courville had discussed in detail its suitability as the background for the enslavement and ultimate deliverance (Exodus 1:8-5:22).
And Dr. Velikovsky had presented a compelling case for both the Ipuwer and Ermitage papyrii’s being recollections of the plagues and devastation of Egypt:
http://www.hermetics.org/exodus.html
An important argument set forth by Velikovsky involves the papyrus of Ipuwer placed into the Leiden Museum in the Netherlands in 1828. This papyrus appears to relate events that occurred in the early ages of ancient Egypt. According to academicians it contains riddles or prophecies, however it openly relates a number of catastrophes that befell Egypt. The Nile turning to blood, the waters being undrinkable, the death of animals, the sky becoming dark, fires, earthquakes, hungry and destitute Egyptians are among these. If Velikovsky is correct then it disproves the contention that there is no trace of the events related in the Pentateuch recorded in Egyptian history.
….
Gavin Menzies will parallel what is described in the Book of Exodus with the progression from the 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens. That idea is picked up again at: https://thebiomedicalscientist.net/science/ten-plagues-egypt
A red river
…. The ancient historian Josephus Flavius reported that the blood red water was undrinkable, the fish died and the air was filled with a horrid stench. Algal blooms can be harmful to wildlife, as the algae contain a toxin that can accumulate in shellfish and poison the animals that feed on them. Fumes from densely-concentrated algal blooms can also disperse toxins in the air, causing breathing problems for people. More importantly, a bloom in the water would have the killed the fish, allowing amphibians to breed unchecked, as fish eat their eggs. Studies have also shown that tadpoles, when stressed because of a change in their environment, quickly develop into frogs. The toxic water would have caused the amphibians to leave and swarm over the land in overwhelming numbers. The amphibians would have stayed away from the deadly river and many would have died, leading to the third plague – lice (this could mean lice, fleas or gnats, based on the Hebrew word kînnîm). If toxic algal led to the first plague and dead frogs followed, it is not surprising that a swarm of insects would also follow.
________________________________________
The 10 plagues in the book of Exodus
01 Blood
The waters were turned to blood – the fish in the river died and the Egyptians couldn’t drink the foul water.
02 Frogs
Frogs swarmed forth, covering every inch of land and entering houses and bedrooms.
03 Lice
All over Egypt, bugs crawled forth from the dust to cover the land.
04 Wild animals
Hordes of wild animals destroyed everything in their path.
05 Pestilence
A fatal pestilence killed most of the domestic animals of the Egyptians.
06 Boils
The Pharaoh, his servants, the Egyptians and even their animals developed painful boils all over their bodies.
07 Fiery hail
Hail struck down all the crops in the fields and shattered every tree.
08 Locusts
The locusts covered the face of the land and swallowed up every crop and all the fruits of the trees.
09 Darkness
A thick darkness over the land of Egypt, so total that the Egyptians had to feel their way around.
10 Death of the first-born
All firstborn Egyptian sons (and firstborn cattle) died. Israelites marked lamb's blood above their door and were passed over.
________________________________________
The plagues continue
The lack of frogs in the river would have let insect populations, normally kept in check by the frogs, increase massively. The rotting corpses of fish and frogs would have attracted significantly more insects to the areas near the Nile. If so, an infestation with certain insects could have set the stage for the later plagues.
….
Today (9th June, 2025) is the feast-day of:
Mary Mother of the Church
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